Reviewing The Effectiveness Of Uk Drug Policy Criminology Essay

Reviewing The Effectiveness Of Uk Drug Policy Criminology Essay This paper argues that a meticulous review of the effectiveness of UK drug policy is urgently needed. Policy as contained in the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 (the MDA), Drugs Act 2005, Medicines Act 1968 and strategy document Drugs: Protecting families and communities]   is currently in a state of disrepair. The question suggests a contemporary over-influence of rhetorical bases in policy formation and evaluation, to the detriment of a frank review of its actual effectiveness, however I am unconvinced this artificial annexation of such broad notions will forge the more effective drug policy to which the question also refers. Rather, I propose that these notions describe the many authorities manipulated and dovetailed to produce and justify a much wider policy model. And it is this model, and the weight given to those authorities that currently hinders the effectiveness of the UK drug policy and deserves review. I call into question the way in which our current system is criminalised v ia the implementation of the MDAs class system, limited to non traditional drugs, and based on control as justified by rhetoric. I propose a more appropriate direction in the adoption of an evidentially based harm reduction model, in line with the home offices most recent policy. 2. UK Drug Policy In order to explore the necessity for a rigorous evaluation of the current UK drug policy; one must gain a comprehensive understanding of what the contemporary policy actually is, and why.  [2]  This can be demonstrated most thoroughly and accurately through a brief analysis of some of the most important policy models affiliated with our domestic drug policy. Through extrapolating the wider reasoning behind our current system I hope to decipher the influences on policy decisions and where the weight imposed on such factors is unsatisfactory the balance should be changed. 2.1. Medicalization A timeline stretching from the nineteenth century keynotes the first defined drug policy of full medicalization at the end of the century.  [3]  This stance places drug users within a medical paradigm, seeing addiction as a disease.  [4]  Whilst this ideology can still be seen as a strand within medicinal interactions with problem drug users, in terms of treatment and the Medicines Act 1968; it no longer works as the basis of domestic strategy. 2.2. A War on Drugs Nixons 1973 use of the metaphor of warfare in relation to drug policies has since seen the USA [wage] an ever-escalating war on drugs.  [5]  This has impacted the UK, where it is argued that criminal law and arguments of morality are deeply embedded in UK drug policy,  [6]  evidenced through a movement towards a largely American-inspired prohibitionist approach in post war years, simply echoing the Pharmacy Act 1869s earlier quasi-medical control of certain substances.  [7]  And I argue that this prohibitionist control still underpins UK drug policy today;  [8]  framing contemporary strategy documents.  [9]  My research suggests this ideology that has lead to drug policy becoming crime-focused to an extent that it can be viewed as distinctively and substantively different in the twenty first century.  [10]   2.3. Criminalisation Academics have noted that the home office has used its influence to try to push Britain towards a system similar to that of the USAreliant solely on control measures.  [11]  With the MDA regulating drugs using a complex legislative framework revolving around the criminalisation of a band of illicit drugs focussing on penal control, apparently based on risk assessment of the harms these drugs cause to the exclusion of traditional drugs such as alcohol and tobacco.  [12]  This was compounded further by the Drugs Act 2005 placing law enforcement and crime reduction [as] central features of the agenda, working alongside the MDA in criminalising the activities surrounding certain drugs.  [13]   The government has maintained that this fundamental purpose of providing a framework within which criminal penalties are set is correct, compounding the overwhelming priority of criminalisation in the current drug policy.  [14]  I argue this undermines current drug strategy aim to reduce the harm that drugs cause to society, to communities, individuals and their families.  [15]  Gower has expressed a deep concern regarding this over-reliance on criminalisation as the means of control, arguing that it lacks a clear grounding in evidence, and it does not achieve its objective to reduce the misuse of drugs.  [16]  This criticism coming from a strong academic feeling that criminalisation seems to define our current definition of the drugs problem, with critics calling into question this nonsensical and unjustified focus on punishment and enforcement.  [17]   2.3.1. Why has the drug-crime link come to be the principal lens through which the drug problem is viewed today?  [18]   The governments criminalisation of drug use is validated by suggestions that drug use and crime are linked in some way;  [19]  as demonstrated by the home office website.  [20]   This contemporary obsession with the drug crime link,  [21]  refers to a belief that the drug trade is linked to serious organised crime.  [22]  Officials argue that the coincidence of drugs and criminal activity can be understood through a theory of causation, and remains a key strand in current drug policy. However, this long history of exaggerated claims has been damned by experts, recognising that whilst there are links; it is surprisingly difficult to show that any of the commonly misused drugs directly cause any behaviour.  [23]  A number of studies have identified only vague correlations,  [24]  with limited evidence showing any causal connections between drugs and crime, somewhat questioning any conviction that drugs cause crime.  [25]  The perceived drug clime link is simply a rhetorical justification of the criminalisation of policy direction, lacking any real evidential strength.  [26]   2.2.2. The Role of the Media Consultation papers work as a key resource in the governments current evaluative process.  [27]  However, public opinion and thus their responses are fundamentally manipulated by the media. Newspapers work in many ways as a talking shop for politicians to inform much of what we know, or think we know, about crime; with careful choices by such outlets triggering a variety of public responses.  [28]  Schlesinger et al assert that media representations are a key moment in the process whereby public discourses concerning crime and justice are made available for general consumption.  [29]  Thus, in consultation papers recognised as conversations with the public and the limited existing form of evaluation medias interpretation is likely to implicate subsequent responses; somewhat negating the productivity of consultation.  [30]   Distorted media presentation of substances can influence popular belief about their harmfulness, which then directly implicates change in drug policy; with clear inconsistencies between reality and reports.  [31]  Mannings commentary on ecstasy depicts how a series of well documented media-led moral panics can lead to an evolution of the governments policy, based on individual tragedies and anecdotes rather than rational analysis of evidence and pragmatic public health responses.  [32]  The rushed classification of Mephedrone recently echoed this to the letter.  [33]  Whilst it denies reviews react to media attention,  [34]  I argue that through sacking David Nutt following such pressure,  [35]  government showed [its] willingness to [bow] to public mood, feeding policy with rhetoric.  [36]  I assert that this amplified role of media in the formulation of drug policy forges political moves driven by people pleasers, rather than evidence. 2.3.3. The role of ACMD The Advisory council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) is a statutory body which aim[s] to advise the government on drug policy and treatment  [37]  . However, its validity is questionable. Firstly, ACMD has a statutory duty to consider both medical and societal harms when making recommendations,  [38]  with a number of factors feeding into decisions, including unconvincing theories, the media, culture and what the public is thought to think  [39]  . Secondly its remit seems to be restricted to those substances the government are concerned with notably excluding alcohol and tobacco. And finally, when scientific bodies bring evidence at odds with governmental direction; it is disregarded.  [40]  Despite Professor Wiles assertion that the Government does not interfere with the independence of the ACMD and that ACMD have freely decided not to advise them about traditional drugs,  [41]  their ambit is limited to illicit drugs, because their advice intended to be indepen dent at present, depends on government policy, not just scientific evidence. ACMD is forced to be political in nature; used as puppets of government in its attempt to legitimize a framework that simply does not correlate with the statistical evidence experts propose.  [42]   2.4. Cultural prejudice The government itself notes that the distinguishing factors regarding the illegality of drugs are based in large part on historical and cultural precedents  [43]  . Politicians are it would seem unwilling to tackle traditional drugs, simply because it would conflict with deeply embedded historical tradition and tolerance.  [44]  Safe.Sensible.Social promotes a sensible drinking culture rather than the prohibition of alcohol,  [45]  which is of stark contrast to any policy regarding what are regarded as illicit drugs. The reasoning for this polarity is defended though the social acceptability of alcohol and tobacco; which are void of any scientific basis.  [46]  This method of distinction questions the validity of our drug policy; emphasising how arbitrary the nature of the way in which we currently decipher which drugs fall within the ambit of the MDA really is.  [47]   2.4.1. Traditional Drugs Because of a preoccupation with illicit drugs in recent decades there has been, until relatively recently, much less discussion on alcohol. This is changing.  [48]  The government has introduced two alcohol policies, the most recent being Safe.Sensible.Social in 2007, however health professionals who had pressed for the alcohol strategy were critical of it when it appeared in 2004 and the 2007 review was thought to be little better.  [49]  Whilst the government discredit direct comparisons between illegal drugs and alcohol as inappropriate,  [50]  the evidence brought to government by the Health Select Committee covering a huge breadth of harms concludes that England has a drink problem.  [51]  Comparisons are appropriate and necessary. WHO deduces that two million deaths are caused by excessive alcohol consumption world-wide each year, with it being responsible for 11% of the total disease burden in Europe.  [52]  Alongside this, 90% of all drug related deaths ar e attributed to alcohol and tobacco.  [53]  In addition there are arguments of a strong correlation between binge drinking and offending,  [54]  even satisfying the flimsy drug-crime link precedent of the MDA. The governments response that the classification system under the MDA is not a suitable mechanism for regulating legal substances such as alcohol and tobacco;  [55]  is met with criticism of their complacency in the face of the seriousness of our current predicament.  [56]  Nutt expresses that it is this omission from the classification system that, perhaps more than any other, truly lays bare its fundamental lack of consistency, reasoning or evidence base.  [57]  If classified under any realistic assessment of toxicity, addictiveness and mortality rates both drugs would certainly be criminalised and prohibited under the current system  [58]  . There is a clear presumption; were alcohol introduced today it would be classified and criminalised.  [59]   2.5. Political rhetoric is far removed from the reality  [60]   The governments use of broad definitions, reliance on rhetorical justifications and a seemingly unconvincing distinction of legal and illegal drugs despite their harms, leads us to a strange statutory framework which legalizes drugs alcohol and nicotine that are equally, if not more, addictive and cause more death and ill health thanthe most feared illegal drugs.  [61]   The moral panics constructed by the failure of politicians promises of a drug free world, have lead to claims that the current policy is an embarrassment, unproductive, and based on a band of rhetoric amidst a failing model of criminalisation and penal thinking.  [62]  Whilst both the alcohol and drug policies suggest a dedication to minimizing the harms caused by drug use, the prevalence of tough talk and political posturing has invariably triumphed over common sense, with the key aim of harm reduction lost within the framework of a criminalisation model.  [63]  This clearly calls into question the legitimacy of the advisory council, politicians, and the effectiveness of our drug policy and legislation. 3. A Call for Evaluation The governmental strategy is ad hoc in its foundations, attracting a plethora of criticism regarding the artificiality of the dominant construction of criminality. ACMD suggest that there is scope to explore how effectively the current system is operating,  [64]  and Journalists are led to similar conclusions following indications of the insufficiency of current policy.  [65]  As reports continually conclude, this war on drugs has been a disaster.  [66]  With Boland encapsulating this exasperation in his assessment that the logic of continuing to pour huge amounts of public money into fighting a war that is patently not going to be won must be revisited with a more questioning mind.  [67]  Both scientifically and rhetorically, there are calls for evaluation with an eye to a more effective policy model in which evidential distinctions will thrive. 3.1. The Ambit of Evaluation An evaluation should cover all substances regarded as harmful drugs. Scientists and academics struggle to specifically define what a drug is; mainly retracting back to science with reference to mixtures of chemicals and their effects on users.  [68]  It is fundamentally the mission of the law to draw distinctions, writing laws that draw careful and appropriate distinctions between the permitted and the prescribed.  [69]  The war on drugs has become a war on certain (illicit) drugs, with traditional others such as alcohol and tobacco falling outside of the scope of the draconian enforcement of controls.  [70]  The one obvious basis for distinction between legal and illegal drugs are that illicit drugs are those that create a high risk of harm to the users or others, however even this has been proved to be, inherently flawed.  [71]   3.2. Drugs and Harm: A New Agenda for a New Government  [72]   Although law enforcement has been given a higher priority in recent yearsthey coexist with a quite different line of thinking and action, that of harm reduction.  [73]  An evaluation of the current policy should use an increasingly evidence based approach, with particular regard to the classification of traditional and non traditional drugs within this harm reduction model. If a harm reduction approach is adopted, the policy will work to reduce the harms that result from the misuse of drugs, which waste lives, destroy families and damage communities.  [74]  However, legislations hidden implication of harm reduction is currently insufficient.  [75]  Any such base has been overshadowed in recent decades through the MDAs more prominent regime of classification and subsequent criminalisation of illicit substances.  [76]  Through exploring classification in its present form compared to how it could be improved through using this model, I hope to illustrate how the governme nt could develop strategies which may lead the drug user into less harmful patterns of drug use, rather than simply enforcing the law and punishing wrongdoers.  [77]   4. Drug Classification: making a hash of it  [78]   Despite indications that the current classification system is indefensible;  [79]  the home office has said it has little intention of changing this framework, deciding not to pursue a review of the classification system at this time.  [80]  I counteract that this is a mistake, with the the methodology and processes underlying classification systems inherently flawed.  [81]  As per Forte et al, in a freedom loving society no conduct by rational adults should be criminalised unless it is harmful to others; I argue that a transparent evaluation of the way in which our policy works and should work is long overdue.  [82]   4.1. Policy needs to informed by evidence  [83]   Critics have, in many ways, attributed the failing classification system to it being closed to scientific evidence.  [84]  Many arguing that the MDA simply reflects official perceptions of relative harmfulness,  [85]  claiming that the government routinely cherry picks and spins figuresto give a misleading impression.  [86]  I suggest that this can be remedied through a clearer, more sagacious approach  [87]  . And support the notion that evidence should not dictate all aspects of drug policy, but that clear distinctions need to be made when policy is based on scientific evidence and when it is made on the basis of particular conception of what society should be like.  [88]  Nutt has said that people really dont know what the evidence is. They see the classification, they hear about evidence and they get mixed messages [with the] scientific probity of governmentundermined in this kind of way.  [89]  The public should be fully informed of the basis of the frame work presented to them, and the reasoning behind this. Rhetoric and cultural influences are an important factor in formulating policy decisions and communicating with the public and their impact should not be wholly negated, rather a limitation of rhetorics weighted influence in key decisions regarding the harmfulness of drugs is needed. 5. Policy Consequences Upon evaluation I suggest that the current system will be regarded as outdated, ineffective and in need of a complete regeneration. Whereas at present it seems the ACMD can only recommend prohibition,  [90]  I have not explored, nor will I advocate, the notion of legalisation or indeed the criminalisation of harmful substances. Rather, I suggest such an approach is unproductive, and envisage a two pronged approach; involving the current penal system as just that a system of punishment, running parallel with a more scientifically based approach. 5.1. One Policy In accordance with my discussion regarding the scientific evidence about alcohol induced harm, I believe that alcohol policys separation from the UK drug policy is unnecessary and unproductive. We must fully endorse harm reduction approaches at all levels and especially stop the artificial separation of alcohol and tobacco as non-drugs.  [91]  As it stands, there is no sign that the governments aims to reduce harmful alcohol consumption have been achieved.  [92]  Increasingly strong evidence suggests a long term trend towards the integration of traditional and non traditional drugs.  [93]  And I support a more comprehensive policy that amalgamates drugs and alcohol, using the evidence bases made available to the government to truly work to reduce the harms caused by drug misuse in the UK.  [94]   6.2. Rational Scale Based primarily on the work of Nutt, King, Saulsbury and Blakemore, I am calling for a second scale that doesnt simply masquerade itself as an indication of the harmfulness of drugs; but is an accurate scientific representation of the harmfulness of each drug. This would be decoupled from penalties, to give the public a better sense of the relative harms involved, working as a second pillar to a continued penal classification system, with very little change.  [95]  Transform has supported the pragmatic nature of this scheme, and my research would suggest that many critics would welcome this scientific inclusion,  [96]  offering scientific evidence of actual risks as a way of replacing perceived risk in the classification process  [97]  . A key issue with this approach is the deciphering of what harm actually is, however I propose that this scale would allow for flexibility in the interim period of its existence. Whilst Nutt has criticised the current systems lack of flexi bility,  [98]  he is confident that this modified scale is remarkably robust as data is added to it, clearly opening its doors to a workable and scien

GameStop POP Displays Essay

I recently went to a retail shop near my house to observe a number of things about point of purchase of a number of items displayed. I visited the store which was one of the most talked about in my area so tempted to try that place I paid a trip to GameStop, being only a quarter mile away from my house. Upon entering the shop I was fascinated by the size and the rush of the people at the store. At that spur of moment I realized that this place will most definitely possess a variety of items at display. As I moved around I noticed there was adequate space for the crowd to view each and every display. But obviously there were certain items that really attracted people for various reasons, either out of curiosity or genuinely being interested in the displayed matter. After a whole walk through of the GameStop store, I counted and checked with the reception that there were 22 displays to ensure I dint miss out any of them for my observation. The object that really caught my attention was the Guitar Hero World Tour as it was the first display I stood and the longest. This is because the minute I entered the shop, the item was right in front so it was unlikely that anyone would have missed it. Also owing to the fact that high definition television with surround sound is one of my interests but the facility to reserve a copy of my own and the date of when it will be released really impressed me. To my disappointment Little Big Planet was really unsuccessful, not just in my view but the general public as well. No release date was mentioned so there was no point pondering over it. Maybe that’s why it was displayed at a dimly lit area, right at the back of the store. Also being stacked being other displays just made it even more difficult to reach out to it. I even went up to the store manager to get a better insight on how they operated the POP display. As a layman I questioned him over POP displays and trade allowances on which he was well informed. He mentioned that POP displays were used as means of sales promotion and getting the customer in the game shop. For example Play Station 3 was prominently situated right at the center of the store so that most of the customer traffic gathered around there, in that way once they were done with having a feel of Play Station 3, they will have to go through other products, in this way maneuvering the customers. But not all items were displayed according to the manager who suggested that 10% were not used to allow other unpopular games to be made accessible for a segmented market. Store size was also not big enough to cater all the products that is why it is critical to determine which items need to be displayed. This determination is also done by the upper management on the basis of the location and size of the store. Though one troubled factor for the manager was that a booklet was the foundation of setting up a display (Source: POP Display) Similarly trade allowance was used as means of offering negotiated price for the customers to feel tempted to purchase the product as such lucrative offers are not available every other time. Another way how trade allowance helped was that sales personnel made good efforts to sell their respective products. Surprisingly the manager hardly knew about the practicality in applying trade allowance theory on GameShop store as upper management simply kept this information to themself. In this way the manager really felt frustrated on the inability to understand how and why certain reasons are considered acceptable to the upper management while he might disagree. (Source: Trade Allowance) As I see lack of ownership has really got the level of performance below, which could really be avoided to enhance sales as more and more products would have been presented in a better manner. Works Cited 1. Principles of Marketing (POP Display). 13 October 2008 . 2. Principles of Marketing (Trade Allowance). 13 October 2008 .

Police Discretion

Discretion is defined as the authority to make a decision between two or more choices (Pollock, 2010). More specifically, it is defined as â€Å"the capacity to identify and to document criminal and noncriminal events† (Boivin &ump; Cordeau, 2011). Every police officer has a great deal of discretion concerning when to use their authority, power, persuasion, or force. Depending on how an officer sees their duty to society will determine an officer’s discretion. Discretion leads to selective enforcement practices and may result in discrimination against certain groups of people or select individuals (Young, 2011).Most police officer discretion is exercised in situational situations with individuals (Sherman, 1984). Discrimination can lead to legal problems for an officer of the law. If discrimination due to an officer’s use of discretion results in a violation of due process it is a violation of the law (Young, 2010). Due process is the constitutionally mandated pr ocedural steps designed to eliminate error in any governmental deprivation of liberty, life, or property (Pollock, 2010). One of the main concerns with using discretion is the possibility of it leading to a violation of due process by racial profiling.Types of Negative Police Discretion Racial profiling occurs when a police officer uses a â€Å"profile† as reasonable suspicion to stop a person with the intent to obtain consent to search their belongings (Pollock, 2010). These stops are usually traffic stops and the officer is looking to obtain consent to search the individual’s automobile. The â€Å"profile† used is based on race. In these cases, an officer is using their discretion to target minority groups because they believe they are involved in criminal activities.The concern with using this profile is that racial stereotyping of minority groups will lead police to crack down on minorities more than on other groups. While police see the action of racial pro filing as a normal police tactic, minority groups see the actions as racist (Young, 2011). Although most studies on police officer discretion is focused on racial profiling, it has also been shown that officers patrol hot spots. Hot spots are areas known to have a high rate of criminal activity. Focusing on hot spots is an officer’s discretion, because they are ignoring other areas that could potential produce criminal activities.All surveillance and enforcement efforts are focused on the â€Å"hot† area. Not only are officers ignoring other areas, but they have determined those areas are not as important as the hot spot. Hot spots can prove to be problematic if the criminal activity located in the hot spot before it was being patrolled is moved to a new location. The new location is prone to no police surveillance because all resources are focused on the old hot spot (Mastrofski, 2011). Discretion and the Use of Force Police have the uncontested right to use force whe n necessary to apprehend a suspect.If the force exceeds that which is necessary it is defined as excessive force and is illegal. An officer’s discretion on use of force is a based on judgment. They do not know if a judge will later rule an instance of use of force as excessive or not. There is a fine line between what is considered acceptable force and what is considered excessive force. All an officer can do is use their training to determine what is and what is not excessive force for the given circumstances (Pollock, 2010). The use of force is highly resistant to change, even after the Rodney King incident.Rodney King was a subject of police brutality. He was repeatedly beat with a baton by Los Angeles police officers, while other officers stood by watching without attempting to stop the excessive force. The pattern of excessive force may be so ingrained in some police department cultures that it remains unaffected by other high profile excess force cases, such as the Rodn ey King case. This pattern is termed the â€Å"culture of force. † The culture of force is also subject to an officer’s discretion. The culture of force is detrimental to a department.The Los Angeles Police Department in the 1980s and 1990s would act on a tip and destroy homes by breaking toilets, ripping sofas, and spray painting â€Å"LAPD Rules! † on the walls. These acts by the Los Angeles Police Department prove the culture of the department will have an influence on the individual officer (Pollock, 2010). Police departments have use-of-force policies that specify when force may be used and the proper level of force to be used under given circumstances. Most departments use a continuum-of-force approach that allows proportional force to the suspect’s resistance.The level of force by an officer increases in direct response to escalating resistance of the suspect. Policies such as this one have been put into place following many humiliating acts of exc essive force. The policies are in place in an attempt to prevent future acts of excessive force (Pollock, 2010). Studies on Police Discretion National studies on police behavior have failed to adequately address the issue of police discretion. Due to the lack of important research data, analysts have developed suggestions on how to improve an individual officer’s discretion by educating the entire department on proper use of discretion.The current suggestions are focused on officers in higher ranks developing an educational program for their department addressing areas of needs they have observed. They are the eyes of the department, and it is there job to know what their officers needs entail. Each department will have different needs based on the ethical viewpoints of their individual officers (Mastrofski, 2011). A study on police discretion conducted in Canada was implemented to try to eliminate negative police discretion. The study first mandated that all reported violati ons of the law be recorded.The results of the study had effective but temporary results. There were more records of assaults, robberies, thefts, and mischief. However, the study had no effects on reports of burglaries and car thefts. It is estimated that during the one year study police recorded 13,000 extra crimes. Although there was an increase in records, detection and reporting rates remained the same. The extra recordings were determined to be ineffective because the community reported that they did not notice a difference in the policing styles (Boivin &ump; Cordeau, 2011). Ethical Dilemmas in Police DiscretionEthical dilemmas are â€Å"situations in which it is difficult to make a decision, either because the right course of action is not clear or the right course of action carries some negative consequences. † Ethical dilemmas entail the individual struggling with personal decision making, and sometimes results in a personal dilemma. Departmental policy can lead to pe rsonal dilemmas as well if it means going against an individual officer’s ethical system beliefs. This can lead to the officer seeking a change in law to match their own person views on the issue (Pollock, 2010).Utilitarianism is â€Å"the ethical system that claims the greatest good is that which results in the greatest happiness for the greatest number. † Utilitarianism therefore argues racial profiling is ethical because the â€Å"end† of drug interdictions justifies the â€Å"means† of harassing and inconveniencing the group. An argument against this justification is that when an officer uses racial profiling in decision making, the officer’s motives obscured. They do not concentrate on what is important for investigations. Behavior is what is important, not demographics (Pollock, 2010).Ethical formalism states that â€Å"the only thing truly good is a good will. † This ethical system does not agree with the idea of racial profiling. Acc ording to Pollock, it would mean that everyone should be stopped in the same way, so everyone would have to agree to be stopped numerous times every week. Since society most likely will not all agree that everyone should be stopped the same, racial profiling would not be an accepted practice in the ethical formalism system (Pollock, 2010). It is difficult to apply ethical systems to the use of deadly force and tasers. This is because each situation involving the use of force is different.At times an officer may benefit from the use of a taser, but other times the use, or threat of use, of a deadly weapon is more effective. Officers may argue that tasers do not always benefit the suspect because tasers do not always stop people. Departmental policies usually overrule ethics in the use of force. This is because officers have a duty of protection, so if they can accomplish their task without hurting the individual their duty would require the lesser use of force. Every officer has a du ty to prevent crime. If they feel an individual is a criminal based on race, then formal policies are going to conflict with their ethics.In other words, if an officer believes racial profiling is an effective method of policing their ethics are going to conflict with formal policies. An effective method to correct this conflict has been to educate officers on evidence that proves stopping minorities based on their race are less likely to result in criminal activity than stops based on behavioral-based criteria. Even with education, an officer’s ethics can still prevail over evidence learned in training. This is because the officer’s ethical standards still tell them racial profiling is more effective (Pollock, 2010).Training to Eliminate Unethical Police Discretion Practices Efforts to eliminate racial discrimination in the police culture are in the form of new officer recruitment and training and taught through patrol work. These measures are taken to eliminate negat ive discretion, such as racial profiling, by developing better relationships with the community regardless of the racial composition. The goal is to make police-citizen interactions more frequent, varied, and dispersed throughout the community (Mastrofski, 2011). A suggestion was made on how to police hot spots by Mastrofski.He suggested that instead of having officers stationed in hot spots with full personal discretion on how they police the area, they should be told how long to patrol the area or told what tactics to use in the area. This will eliminate complete personal discretion by the officers patrolling the hot spot areas. The time limit of policing the hot spot is to reduce the amount of neglect other areas in the community experience due to the policing of hot spot areas. The goal of this plan is to continue with the crack downs in hot spot zones without neglecting other areas in the community (Mastrofski, 2011).Conclusion Although this research paper focused on the negati ve effects of police discretion, there can also be positive effects. Things such as giving offenders of minor traffic violations less of a punishment or giving first time youth offenders less of a punishment to let them learn from their mistakes are examples of what can be termed positive police discretion. However, what is considered positive discretion to one person could be negative discretion to another. Every person has their own opinions about how police discretion should be handled.Some may think police should not be entitled to use discretion and every department should have policies the officers should follow instead. Other people may like that police have the use of discretion which could lead to a warning for a minor traffic violation instead of a fine. The topic of police discretion in relation to ethical dilemmas is also a heated debate. Since people have different ethics; every police officer will patrol a little different. It has been suggested that police departments educate their officers to be more uniform in their policing.Not only would this eliminate some of the negative discretion practices officers may have developed, it would also put all the officers on the same page with the way the department would like to have the community policed (Mastrofski, 2011). The concept of police discretion is a large topic of conversation among researchers. The problem I see with the topic of conversation is there is not a lot of research done on the actual affects of the individual discretion of each officer compared to a department that has been educated in following policies more than personal discretion.In fact, from what I saw there is not much research on the effects of discretion at all. It seems like it is a topic that is overlooked when researching the effectiveness of a department. I feel like before more solutions are found on how to correct the problem of discretion, more research needs to be done on how discretion plays a role in every day po licing. Until this research is conducted, all the articles published are on theories of discretion causing problems, and all of the solutions mentioned are methods to correct a problem that has not even been proven to be an issue yet. Police Discretion Discretion is defined as the authority to make a decision between two or more choices (Pollock, 2010). More specifically, it is defined as â€Å"the capacity to identify and to document criminal and noncriminal events† (Boivin &ump; Cordeau, 2011). Every police officer has a great deal of discretion concerning when to use their authority, power, persuasion, or force. Depending on how an officer sees their duty to society will determine an officer’s discretion. Discretion leads to selective enforcement practices and may result in discrimination against certain groups of people or select individuals (Young, 2011).Most police officer discretion is exercised in situational situations with individuals (Sherman, 1984). Discrimination can lead to legal problems for an officer of the law. If discrimination due to an officer’s use of discretion results in a violation of due process it is a violation of the law (Young, 2010). Due process is the constitutionally mandated pr ocedural steps designed to eliminate error in any governmental deprivation of liberty, life, or property (Pollock, 2010). One of the main concerns with using discretion is the possibility of it leading to a violation of due process by racial profiling.Types of Negative Police Discretion Racial profiling occurs when a police officer uses a â€Å"profile† as reasonable suspicion to stop a person with the intent to obtain consent to search their belongings (Pollock, 2010). These stops are usually traffic stops and the officer is looking to obtain consent to search the individual’s automobile. The â€Å"profile† used is based on race. In these cases, an officer is using their discretion to target minority groups because they believe they are involved in criminal activities.The concern with using this profile is that racial stereotyping of minority groups will lead police to crack down on minorities more than on other groups. While police see the action of racial pro filing as a normal police tactic, minority groups see the actions as racist (Young, 2011). Although most studies on police officer discretion is focused on racial profiling, it has also been shown that officers patrol hot spots. Hot spots are areas known to have a high rate of criminal activity. Focusing on hot spots is an officer’s discretion, because they are ignoring other areas that could potential produce criminal activities.All surveillance and enforcement efforts are focused on the â€Å"hot† area. Not only are officers ignoring other areas, but they have determined those areas are not as important as the hot spot. Hot spots can prove to be problematic if the criminal activity located in the hot spot before it was being patrolled is moved to a new location. The new location is prone to no police surveillance because all resources are focused on the old hot spot (Mastrofski, 2011). Discretion and the Use of Force Police have the uncontested right to use force whe n necessary to apprehend a suspect.If the force exceeds that which is necessary it is defined as excessive force and is illegal. An officer’s discretion on use of force is a based on judgment. They do not know if a judge will later rule an instance of use of force as excessive or not. There is a fine line between what is considered acceptable force and what is considered excessive force. All an officer can do is use their training to determine what is and what is not excessive force for the given circumstances (Pollock, 2010). The use of force is highly resistant to change, even after the Rodney King incident.Rodney King was a subject of police brutality. He was repeatedly beat with a baton by Los Angeles police officers, while other officers stood by watching without attempting to stop the excessive force. The pattern of excessive force may be so ingrained in some police department cultures that it remains unaffected by other high profile excess force cases, such as the Rodn ey King case. This pattern is termed the â€Å"culture of force. † The culture of force is also subject to an officer’s discretion. The culture of force is detrimental to a department.The Los Angeles Police Department in the 1980s and 1990s would act on a tip and destroy homes by breaking toilets, ripping sofas, and spray painting â€Å"LAPD Rules! † on the walls. These acts by the Los Angeles Police Department prove the culture of the department will have an influence on the individual officer (Pollock, 2010). Police departments have use-of-force policies that specify when force may be used and the proper level of force to be used under given circumstances. Most departments use a continuum-of-force approach that allows proportional force to the suspect’s resistance.The level of force by an officer increases in direct response to escalating resistance of the suspect. Policies such as this one have been put into place following many humiliating acts of exc essive force. The policies are in place in an attempt to prevent future acts of excessive force (Pollock, 2010). Studies on Police Discretion National studies on police behavior have failed to adequately address the issue of police discretion. Due to the lack of important research data, analysts have developed suggestions on how to improve an individual officer’s discretion by educating the entire department on proper use of discretion.The current suggestions are focused on officers in higher ranks developing an educational program for their department addressing areas of needs they have observed. They are the eyes of the department, and it is there job to know what their officers needs entail. Each department will have different needs based on the ethical viewpoints of their individual officers (Mastrofski, 2011). A study on police discretion conducted in Canada was implemented to try to eliminate negative police discretion. The study first mandated that all reported violati ons of the law be recorded.The results of the study had effective but temporary results. There were more records of assaults, robberies, thefts, and mischief. However, the study had no effects on reports of burglaries and car thefts. It is estimated that during the one year study police recorded 13,000 extra crimes. Although there was an increase in records, detection and reporting rates remained the same. The extra recordings were determined to be ineffective because the community reported that they did not notice a difference in the policing styles (Boivin &ump; Cordeau, 2011). Ethical Dilemmas in Police DiscretionEthical dilemmas are â€Å"situations in which it is difficult to make a decision, either because the right course of action is not clear or the right course of action carries some negative consequences. † Ethical dilemmas entail the individual struggling with personal decision making, and sometimes results in a personal dilemma. Departmental policy can lead to pe rsonal dilemmas as well if it means going against an individual officer’s ethical system beliefs. This can lead to the officer seeking a change in law to match their own person views on the issue (Pollock, 2010).Utilitarianism is â€Å"the ethical system that claims the greatest good is that which results in the greatest happiness for the greatest number. † Utilitarianism therefore argues racial profiling is ethical because the â€Å"end† of drug interdictions justifies the â€Å"means† of harassing and inconveniencing the group. An argument against this justification is that when an officer uses racial profiling in decision making, the officer’s motives obscured. They do not concentrate on what is important for investigations. Behavior is what is important, not demographics (Pollock, 2010).Ethical formalism states that â€Å"the only thing truly good is a good will. † This ethical system does not agree with the idea of racial profiling. Acc ording to Pollock, it would mean that everyone should be stopped in the same way, so everyone would have to agree to be stopped numerous times every week. Since society most likely will not all agree that everyone should be stopped the same, racial profiling would not be an accepted practice in the ethical formalism system (Pollock, 2010). It is difficult to apply ethical systems to the use of deadly force and tasers. This is because each situation involving the use of force is different.At times an officer may benefit from the use of a taser, but other times the use, or threat of use, of a deadly weapon is more effective. Officers may argue that tasers do not always benefit the suspect because tasers do not always stop people. Departmental policies usually overrule ethics in the use of force. This is because officers have a duty of protection, so if they can accomplish their task without hurting the individual their duty would require the lesser use of force. Every officer has a du ty to prevent crime. If they feel an individual is a criminal based on race, then formal policies are going to conflict with their ethics.In other words, if an officer believes racial profiling is an effective method of policing their ethics are going to conflict with formal policies. An effective method to correct this conflict has been to educate officers on evidence that proves stopping minorities based on their race are less likely to result in criminal activity than stops based on behavioral-based criteria. Even with education, an officer’s ethics can still prevail over evidence learned in training. This is because the officer’s ethical standards still tell them racial profiling is more effective (Pollock, 2010).Training to Eliminate Unethical Police Discretion Practices Efforts to eliminate racial discrimination in the police culture are in the form of new officer recruitment and training and taught through patrol work. These measures are taken to eliminate negat ive discretion, such as racial profiling, by developing better relationships with the community regardless of the racial composition. The goal is to make police-citizen interactions more frequent, varied, and dispersed throughout the community (Mastrofski, 2011). A suggestion was made on how to police hot spots by Mastrofski.He suggested that instead of having officers stationed in hot spots with full personal discretion on how they police the area, they should be told how long to patrol the area or told what tactics to use in the area. This will eliminate complete personal discretion by the officers patrolling the hot spot areas. The time limit of policing the hot spot is to reduce the amount of neglect other areas in the community experience due to the policing of hot spot areas. The goal of this plan is to continue with the crack downs in hot spot zones without neglecting other areas in the community (Mastrofski, 2011).Conclusion Although this research paper focused on the negati ve effects of police discretion, there can also be positive effects. Things such as giving offenders of minor traffic violations less of a punishment or giving first time youth offenders less of a punishment to let them learn from their mistakes are examples of what can be termed positive police discretion. However, what is considered positive discretion to one person could be negative discretion to another. Every person has their own opinions about how police discretion should be handled.Some may think police should not be entitled to use discretion and every department should have policies the officers should follow instead. Other people may like that police have the use of discretion which could lead to a warning for a minor traffic violation instead of a fine. The topic of police discretion in relation to ethical dilemmas is also a heated debate. Since people have different ethics; every police officer will patrol a little different. It has been suggested that police departments educate their officers to be more uniform in their policing.Not only would this eliminate some of the negative discretion practices officers may have developed, it would also put all the officers on the same page with the way the department would like to have the community policed (Mastrofski, 2011). The concept of police discretion is a large topic of conversation among researchers. The problem I see with the topic of conversation is there is not a lot of research done on the actual affects of the individual discretion of each officer compared to a department that has been educated in following policies more than personal discretion.In fact, from what I saw there is not much research on the effects of discretion at all. It seems like it is a topic that is overlooked when researching the effectiveness of a department. I feel like before more solutions are found on how to correct the problem of discretion, more research needs to be done on how discretion plays a role in every day po licing. Until this research is conducted, all the articles published are on theories of discretion causing problems, and all of the solutions mentioned are methods to correct a problem that has not even been proven to be an issue yet.

A Book Review of Lost History by Michael Hamilton Morgan

UICI 2022– F1 SCIENCE TECHNOLOGY amp; MANKIND DR. ABDUL AZEEZ YUSUF BOOK REVIEW: Book Review of â€Å"Lost History† by Michael Hamilton Morgan (30th NOVEMBER 2012) BY MEHRAN QADRI (A11CS2005) AHMAD AL RAZI (A11KP2008) MUHAMMAD SAYID SABIQ (AC102001) 1. Introduction The book that we have chosen to review is titled â€Å"Lost History, the Enduring Legacy of Muslim Scientists, Thinkers and Artists†. The author of the book is Michael Hamilton Morgan. The book was published in the year 2007 and also holds the same copyright date. The book is a non-fiction. The main subject matter of the book is the history of the Islamic civilization from the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him)†¦show more content†¦These facts certainly challenge the modern western civilization which claims that the above mentioned advancements in science as mathematics were made by Greek philosophers. The author also delightfully reminds the reader that it was in Baghdad that Scheherazade told the famous tales of the One Thousand and One Nights. The author also states the qualities of Muslim leadership using examples from Caliph AbÃ… « Bakr, Caliph `AlÄ « and others who championed an ethos of social fairness and justice, advanced public health and tolerance of diversity in faith, nationality, and ethnicity. He also mentions the character and work style of HÄ rÃ… «n al-RashÄ «d and focuses on the manner in which the Christian Crusaders treated the population in Jerusalem after conquering the city in 1099. They spared neither men nor women nor children, in sharp contrast to the manner in which Saladin treated the population of Jerusalem when he conquered it again in 1187. These facts are a rebuttal to the modern western civilizations who call the system of the Islamic Caliphate a dictatorship. 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